The Concise Guide to Wine and Blind Tasting, second edition

Even music can alter our perception of wine. According to research from the Crossmodal Research Laboratory at the University of Oxford, people associate higher notes, flutes, and tinkling piano with sweetness; and deeper, more resonant notes with bitterness.

Before phylloxera, the vineyards of Europe had been battling with powdery mildew or oidium (Uncinula necator), a fungal disease that, like phylloxera, had come from America. Unlike most fungi, oidium prefers dry conditions. The first symptoms of infection are whitish powdery patches on the undersurfaces of basal leaves, but canes, flowers, and fruit can also be affected. Diseased berries fail to thrive and may split open. The original solution of spraying or dusting sulphur onto the vines is still practised, assisted by canopy management techniques that increase air and light penetration.

Today, phylloxera continues to pose a near universal threat, and almost all vinifera vines are grafted onto American rootstocks. Geographical isolation and strict quarantine measures have so far preserved South Australia and much of Chile and Argentina from the pest, but it can only be a matter of time before it rears its ugly head.

Even trees and other plants have a role to play. The Forêt des Landes shields Bordeaux from strong and salty winds. On a much smaller scale, trees and hedges shelter a vineyard from gales and storms and stabilize steeper slopes. Ground cover crops protect the soil from erosion and runoff, improve soil structure and fertility,
provide a habitat for beneficial predators, and promote biodiversity.

The world’s most successful wine regions lie within latitudes 30-50° North and South. Within these diverse temperate zones, some grape varieties such as Riesling, Pinot Noir, and Sauvignon Blanc do best in cooler, more marginal climates. Others, such as Grenache, Nero d’Avola, and Touriga Nacional call for much hotter conditions. Cabernet Sauvignon insists on a moderate but sunny climate, whereas Chardonnay is adaptable, yielding lean and mineral wines in cool Chablis but blousy and buttery wines in hot parts of South Australia. Generally speaking, white varieties need less heat than black varieties, and so predominate in the coolest, most marginal regions such as southern England, Champagne, and the Mosel. Wines from such marginal regions may be softened or made more palatable by double fermentation, arrested fermentation (to retain residual sugar), the addition of sugar, or ageing on the lees.

Altitude can make it possible to produce quality wine in hotter regions such as the Duero/Douro Valley, Mount Etna, Cederberg, and Mount Canobolas. As a general rule, for every 100m (328ft) of ascent, the mean temperature drops by 0.5-0.6°C. Higher altitudes are also associated with cooler nights and greater diurnal temperature variation, which enable grapes to ripen and concentrate flavour while preserving natural acidity.

In the northern hemisphere, many vineyards are planted on south-facing slopes to capture as much sunlight as possible, and vice versa in the southern hemisphere.

The best results are obtained in temperate climates with a growing season that extends over 180 or more consecutive frost-free days with average temperatures of 16-21°C and more than 1,250 sunshine hours

Early sparkling wines were produced by the méthode ancestrale, with the carbon dioxide gas arising from fermentation in the bottle.

Cahors can be reminiscent of Bordeaux, but is darker in colour with more plum, chocolate, and mineral notes, and heavier tannins that can make it austere and unapproachable in its youth.